English Grammar Notes
1. Adverbs & Adjectives:
Adverbs:
(Adj
+ ly → Adverb)
i)
Always, often, never, usually, sometimes, normally, generally, etc. must
come before the verb.
- Example: I
always have lunch in the college.
ii)
Special case: Sometimes, usually, normally, and generally can come at the
beginning or end of the sentence.
- Example: I
normally have lunch in the college or Normally, I have lunch in the
college.
iii)
Phrases like from time to time, now and again, as a rule must come at
the beginning or end of the sentence.
- Example: As a
rule, I have lunch in the canteen. or I have lunch in the college
canteen as a rule.
Adjectives:
Adjective
order:
1. Opinion: ugly, beautiful
2. Size: short, tiny
3. Shape: round, circular
4. Condition/state: wet,
rich, hungry
5. Age: old, young
6. Color: red, yellow
7. Pattern: striped,
checked
8. Origin: southern, Korean
9. Material: cloth, metal
10.
Purpose:
shopping, drinking
2. Subject-Verb Agreement:
Singular Verbs:
- Goes, plays, is,
has
Plural Verbs:
- Go, play, are, have
1. When two or more
subjects are connected by either--or, neither--nor, not only--but also, the verb is used
according to the latter subject.
- Example: Neither
she nor I am absent today.
Either he or you have been to Japan.
2. When phrases like accompanied
by, along with, in addition to, as well as are used, the verb is selected
according to the former subject.
- Example: She as
well as I is busy.
A nurse along with doctors goes to the hospital.
Mrs. Gurung, accompanied by her parents and friends, was celebrating a party all that evening.
3. When two subjects are
connected by and, the verb becomes plural.
- Example: She and
I are classmates.
Guitar and piano are musical instruments. - Note 1: If the sentence
gives a suggestion or quotation, the verb becomes singular.
- Example: Slow
and steady wins the race.
Time and tide wait for no man.
Honor and glory is his reward. - Note 2: If there is only
one article for two subjects, it refers to the same person, and a singular
verb is used. However, two articles indicate two different people.
- Example: The
lecturer and producer is awarded.
The lecturer and the producer are awarded.
4. Some nouns, like news,
politics, physics, linguistics, statistics, wages, mathematics, economics,
gymnastics, etc., look plural but take singular verbs.
o Example: Mathematics
is a hard subject.
The news is good today.
Economics is a branch of study.
5. Some nouns, like vermin,
sheep, salmon, swine, clergy, police, deer, poultry, cattle, fish, etc.,
take plural verbs, although they look singular.
o Example: The sheep
are in the field.
The police have arrested thieves.
A deer is sitting in the field.
6. Words like someone,
somebody, anyone, anybody, no one, nobody, everyone, everybody take
singular verbs.
o Example: Someone has
taken my book.
Everybody is dancing at the party.
No one was there.
7. Phrases like a group
of, a herd of, a crowd of, a band of, a flock of, a gang of, a pack of, a
regiment of, a set of, a team of, a pride of use singular verbs.
o Example: A crowd of
people was at the gate.
A group of boys is studying.
A flock of sheep is grazing in the lawn.
8. Phrases like either
of, each (of), neither of, every, one of + plural noun take singular verbs.
o Example: Either of
the girls is busy today.
Each of them was poor in health.
9. Phrases like a number
of, a couple of + plural nouns take plural verbs.
o Example: A number of
boys are doing their homework.
- Note: The number of
+ plural nouns take singular verbs.
- Example: The
number of boys is seventy in class ten.
10.
Words like a lot of, most of, all of, some of, many
of, two of, a few of, several of + plural nouns take plural verbs.
- Example: A lot
of people are having coffee.
Most of the boys were good.
Some of the books have been torn.
11.
The + adjective takes a plural verb.
- Example: The
poor are alive.
Words to remember: the old, the honest, the blind, the dumb, the innocent, the guilty, etc.
12.
Nouns like shorts, trousers, pants, jeans, scales,
tongs, shoes, binoculars, spectacles, etc., take plural verbs.
- Example: The
trousers are too thin.
The scissors are not blunt. - Note: A pair of (shorts,
trousers, pants, jeans, etc.) takes a singular verb.
- Example: A pair
of trousers is too thin.
3. Prepositions:
Prepositions of Direction:
To refer to direction, use to, in, into,
on, onto.
- Example: She
drove to the store.
Come right into the house.
Drive onto the grass and park the car there.
Prepositions of Time:
To refer to one point in time, use in,
at, on.
·
Use in
with parts of the day (not specific times), months, years, and seasons.
- Example: He
reads in the evening.
The weather is cold in December.
She was born in 1996.
·
Use at
with the time of day. Also use at with noon, night, and midnight.
- Example: I
go to work at 8:00.
He eats lunch at noon.
She often goes for a walk at night.
·
Use on
with days.
- Example: I
work on Saturdays.
He does laundry on Wednesdays.
·
For extended
time, use since, for, by, during, from…to, from…until, with, and within.
- Example: I
have lived in Minneapolis since 2005.
She will finish her homework by 6:00.
Prepositions of Place:
Use in, at, on, inside to refer to a
place.
- Example: They
will meet in the lunchroom.
She was waiting at the corner.
He left his phone on the bed.
Prepositions of Location:
Use in for an area, at for
a point, and on for a surface.
- Example: They
live in the country.
She will find him at the library.
There is a lot of dirt on the window.
Prepositions of Spatial
Relationships:
To show spatial relationships, use above,
across, against, ahead of, along, among, around, behind, between, etc.
- Example: The
post office is across the street from the grocery store.
We will stop at many attractions along the way.
Model Verbs:
- Should - duty, advisability
- Would - wish, polite request
- Might - less possibility
- Must - advice/order, strong probability
- Could - capacity in the past, to show
ability
Exercise:
1. These tasks are very important. You (will/can/can’t/must)
finish them by tomorrow.
o
Answer:
must
(Must is used to express necessity or a strong obligation.)
2. Rita is already over two hours late. She (should
have/must have/will have) missed the bus.
o
Answer:
must have
(Must have indicates strong probability based on available evidence.)
3. When he was young, my grandfather
(can/could/might/would) run 12km.
o
Answer:
could
(Could is used to indicate past ability.)
Tenses
|
Tense |
Present |
Past |
Future |
|
Simple |
I
eat rice. He eats rice. |
I
ate rice. He ate rice. |
I
will eat rice. He will eat rice. |
|
Continuous |
I
am eating rice. He is eating rice. |
I
was eating rice. He was eating rice. |
I
will be eating rice. He will be eating rice. |
|
Perfect |
I
have eaten rice. He has eaten rice. |
I
had eaten rice. He had eaten rice. |
I
will have eaten rice. He will have eaten rice. |
|
Perfect
Continuous |
I
have been eating rice. He has been eating rice. |
I
had been eating rice. He had been eating rice. |
I
will have been eating rice. He will have been eating rice. |
The Uses of Tenses
|
Tenses |
Structure |
Time Adverb (Uses) |
Examples |
|
Present Simple |
Sub+V1/V5
+ obj |
Time
Adverbials: always, never, seldom, usually, often, daily, every (day/month),
etc. |
My
father generally walks in the morning. He never drinks alcohol. The sun sets
in the west. |
|
Present Continuous |
Sub+is/am/are+V4
+ obj |
Time
Adverbials: now, still, at present, at this moment. Commands: Look!/Listen! |
He
is doing his homework now. She is buying a computer tomorrow. |
|
Present Perfect |
Sub+has/have+V3
+ obj |
Time
Adverbs: just, already, yet, recently, lately, so far, today, this
week/month, etc. |
He
has just met me. She has already visited Pokhara. |
|
Present Perfect Continuous |
Sub+has/have+been+V4
+ obj |
Time
Adverbials: all this week, since, for + time phrase |
She
has been seeking her child all this morning. |
|
Past Simple |
Sub+V2
+ obj |
Time
Adverbs: yesterday, last, ago, in 2005, etc. |
He
organized a party last week. I wish he helped me. |
|
Past Continuous |
Sub+was/were+V4
+ obj |
Time
Adverbials: all last week, at 2 o'clock yesterday |
It
was raining all last night. While I was painting, I fell off the ladder. |
|
Past Perfect |
Sub+had+V3
+ obj |
Earlier
past action connected by before/by the time/after/until |
He
had eaten rice before he went to school. |
|
Past Perfect Continuous |
Sub+had+been+V4
+ obj |
Ongoing
action before another action started |
When
I woke up, it had been raining for two hours. |
|
Future Simple |
Sub+will/shall+V1
+ obj |
Time
Adverbs: tomorrow, soon, next day/week/month, etc. |
I
will go to Jumla tomorrow. If you ask me, I will help you. |
|
Future Continuous |
Sub+will/shall+be+V4
+ obj |
Ongoing
action at a point in the future |
I
will be watching TV at 6 a.m. tomorrow. |
|
Future Perfect |
Sub+will/shall+have+V3
+ obj |
By/before
+ future time adverbs |
By
tomorrow, I shall have gone to church. |
|
Future Perfect Continuous |
Sub+will/shall+have+been+V4
+ obj |
By
next month, he will have been staying here for a week |
By
next month, he will have been staying here for a week. |
Exercise:
1. He ______ (eat) a good breakfast before he set out.
o
had
eaten (Past Perfect)
2. By the end of this month, she ______ (work) in this
school for 20 years.
o
will
have been working
(Future Perfect Continuous)
3. His company is greatly ______ (sought) after.
o
sought (Present Perfect)
Infinitive & Gerunds (Non-Finite
Verbs):
- Infinitives: (to + verb1)
- Example: I like to play cricket. To
dance is my dream.
- Gerunds: (verb + ing) – a verb acting as a
noun.
- Example: We enjoy dancing (as an
object). Studying is important (as a subject).
Exercise:
1. Max finished ______ (to do/doing) his homework and
then went to the party with George and Bill.
o
doing
2. They are likely to ______ (show/showing) the results
soon.
o
show
3. Tina wants to ______ (catch) the 7 a.m. bus tomorrow.
o
catch
Conjunctions: (Joining words)
- Examples: because, despite, in spite
of, although, etc.
o
Although
+ subject + verb (unexpected
result)
o
Example: Although
it rained a lot, we enjoyed it.
o
In spite
of/Despite + noun/pronoun + unexpected result
o
Example: Despite
her beauty, no one wants to marry her.
Exercise:
1. I wanted to go back from the office ______ I was
feeling uneasy.
o
because (joins the cause)
2. Although she worked hard, she didn’t pass her exam.
o
Answer:
Correct.
3. I still can’t remember his house although I’ve been
there several times.
Relative Clauses:
|
Pronoun |
Stands for |
Uses |
|
who |
people |
substitutes
for subject nouns/pronouns (he, she, they) |
|
whom |
people |
substitutes
for object nouns/pronouns (him, her, them) |
|
whose |
people/things |
substitutes
for possessive nouns/pronouns (his, her) |
|
that |
things |
can
be used for objects |
|
which |
things |
can
be used for either subject or object |
Voice Transformation
Active Voice → Passive Voice
- Active voice: Subject + Verb
+ Object
- Passive voice: Object +
Auxiliary Verb + Verb (Past Participle) + (by) + Subject
1. They wrote an essay.
→ An essay was written by them.
2. Did they confess the crime?
→ Was the crime confessed by them?
3. I resent people interrupting me when I'm speaking.
→ I resent being interrupted when I'm speaking.
4. Are the tigers being fed? (Change to active voice)
→ Is someone feeding the tigers?
Additional Examples:
5. The police arrested the thief.
→ The thief was arrested by the police.
6. The company will launch a new product next week.
→ A new product will be launched by the company next week.
7. The chef is cooking dinner.
→ Dinner is being cooked by the chef.
Reported Speech
Direct Speech → Indirect Speech
- In direct
speech, we repeat the speaker's exact words.
- In indirect
speech, we report what the speaker said without quoting
their exact words.
Changes in tense:
- Present Simple changes to Past Simple.
- Present
Continuous
changes to Past
Continuous.
- Present
Perfect changes
to Past Perfect.
- Will changes to Would, and can
changes to could.
1. She said to him, "You had met me."
→ She told him that he had met her.
2. She said to her sister, "Did you have
dinner?"
→ She asked her sister if she had had dinner.
3. I said to the boy, "What are you doing?"
→ I asked the boy what he was doing.
4. The Headmaster said to the students, "Do
well."
→ The Headmaster ordered the students to do well.
5. Ritesh said to her, "May you get what you
want."
→ Ritesh blessed her to get what she wanted.
Additional Examples:
6. She said, "I am going to the market."
→ She said that she was going to the market.
7. John said, "I have finished my homework."
→ John said that he had finished his homework.
8. The teacher said, "You will pass the exam."
→ The teacher said that I would pass the exam.
Tag Questions
- A tag
question is a short question at the end of a statement.
- If the statement is positive, the tag is negative, and vice versa.
- Auxiliary Verb + Subject
forms the tag.
1. She has booked a ticket for the theatre, hasn't
she?
2. They had a big project to execute, didn't they?
3. I shall meet you tomorrow, shan't I?
4. They're running after money, aren't they?
5. She'd rather talk to her boss, wouldn't she?
Additional Examples:
6. He is playing football, isn't he?
7. You don't like pizza, do you?
8. She was studying for the exam, wasn't she?
9. They haven’t finished the work, have they?
10.
We
should leave now, shouldn't we?
Change of Verbs
Active → Passive Voice Transformation
1. V1/V5 → am/are + V3
o
Active: He tears the paper.
o
Passive: A paper is torn by him.
2. are + V4 → is/am/are + being + V3
o
Active: They are celebrating a party.
o
Passive: A party is being celebrated by them.
3. has/have + V3 → has/have + been + V3
o
Active: Deepak has kicked the dog.
o
Passive: The dog has been kicked by Deepak.
4. V2 → was/were + V3
o
Active: Mr. K.C. composed a novel.
o
Passive: A novel was composed by Mr. K.C.
5. was/were + V4 → was/were + being + V3
o
Active: She was doing classwork.
o
Passive: Classwork was being done by her.
6. had + V3 → had been + V3
o
Active: He had planted a flower.
o
Passive: A flower had been planted by him.
7. Modal Verbs + V1 → Modal Verbs + be + V3
o
Active: They will publish an article.
o
Passive: An article will be published by them.
8. has to/have to/had to + V1 → has to/have to/had to +
be + V3
o
Active: You have to follow me.
o
Passive: I have to be followed.
9. be verb + going to + V1 → be + going to + be + V3
o
Active: The police are going to arrest a
criminal.
o
Passive: A criminal is going to be arrested by
the police.
10.
Imperative
[V1/Object] → Let + object + (not) be + V3
o
Active: Take it.
o
Passive: Let it be taken.
11.
Let +
Agent + V1 + Object → Let + object + be + V3 + by + agent
o
Active: Let us consider it.
o
Passive: Let it be considered by us.
12.
Yes/No
Question [Aux verb + Sub + Verb] → Aux verb + Object + (Be verb) + V3
o
Active: Did she eat rice?
o
Passive: Was rice eaten by her?
13.
Wh-word +
Aux verb + S + Verb → Wh-word + Aux verb + Object + V3/(be + V3)
o
Active: Why did you disturb us?
o
Passive: Why were we disturbed?
Additional Examples:
14.
She
completed the project on time.
→ The project was completed by her on time.
15.
He is
helping the poor.
→ The poor are being helped by him.
Reported Speech Additional Exercise
1. The Headmaster said, "How many of you are
there?"
→ The Headmaster asked us how many of us were there.
2. "Please, help the poor," he said.
→ He requested us to help the poor.
3. The teacher said, "Did you receive my mail?"
→ The teacher asked me if I had received his mail.
4. She said, "Did you hear me?"
→ She asked if I had heard her.
